Which of the following best describes how stochastic effects manifest in a population?

Stochastic effects are typically characterized by their random nature and the fact that their probability of occurrence increases with exposure, rather than the severity of the effect. In a population, this means that when individuals are exposed to a certain level of radiation, not everyone will experience the same outcome. Instead, only a subset of the exposed individuals may exhibit effects, such as the development of cancer or genetic mutations.

This characteristic differentiates stochastic effects from deterministic effects, where damage and severity are directly correlated with the dose of radiation, and where everyone exposed to a certain threshold will experience an effect. The randomness of stochastic effects makes them harder to predict and study on a population-wide scale, as it may take years or decades for the effects to be realized, and not all individuals will be affected even after similar exposures.