What best characterizes late effects of radiation exposure?

The late effects of radiation exposure are best characterized as stochastic. Stochastic effects are those that occur by chance and are typically associated with low doses of radiation over time. This means that there is no straightforward prediction of who will experience these effects, as they can manifest long after the initial exposure and without a dose threshold. Examples include certain types of cancers and genetic mutations, which may develop many years after exposure.

The unpredictable nature of stochastic effects differentiates them from deterministic effects, which have a clear dosage relationship and can be anticipated based on the amount of radiation exposure, typically resulting in immediate or short-term health outcomes. Late effects of radiation exposure, therefore, involve biologically significant changes that can emerge much later, emphasizing the complex and varied nature of radiation's impact on health over time.